Greek Mythology: Gods, Heroes, and the Sacred Sites

Greek Mythology

Greek mythology was used as a means to explain the environment in which humankind lived, the natural phenomena they witnessed and the passing of time through the days, months, and seasons. Greek myths were also intricately connected to religion and explained the origin and lives of the gods, where humanity had come from and where it was going after death.

Greek myths gave faces and characters to the gods of the Greek religion but they also gave people helpful practical advice on the best way to lead a happy life. Another purpose of myths was to re-tell historical events so that people could maintain contact with their ancestors, the wars they fought, and the places they explored.

The Telling of Myths

In modern usage the term 'myth' perhaps has negative connotations suggesting a lack of authenticity and reliability. However, it should not be assumed that myths were whole-heartedly believed in nor should it be assumed that the Greeks were wholly sceptical of them. Probably, the Greek myths, as with any religious or non-written sources, were believed by some and discounted by others. Myths were certainly used for religious and educational purposes but also may well have had a simple aesthetic function of entertainment. What is certain is that the myths were both familiar and popular with a wide section of Greek society through their common representation in art, whether that be sculpture on public buildings or scenes painted on pottery.

Without wide-spread literacy, the passing on of myths was first done orally, probably by Minoan and Mycenaean bards from the 18th century BC onwards. This of course allows for the possibility that with each re-telling of a particular myth, it is embellished and improved upon to increase audience interest or incorporate local events and prejudices. However, this also is a modern interpretation, for it is also possible that the telling of myths followed certain rules of presentation, and a knowledgeable audience may not have willingly accepted ad hoc adaptations to a familiar tale. Over centuries though, and with increasing contact between city-states, it is difficult to imagine that local stories did not become mixed with others to create a myth with several diverse origins.

The next development in the presentation of myths was the creation of poems in Ionia and the celebrated poems of Homer and Hesiod around the 8th century BC. For the first time mythology was presented in written form. Homer's Iliad recounts the final stages of the Trojan War - perhaps an amalgamation of many conflicts between Greeks and their eastern neighbours in the late Bronze Age (1800-1200 BC) - and the Odyssey recounts the protracted voyage home of the hero Odysseus following the Trojan War. Hesiod's Theogony gives a genealogy of the gods, and his Works and Days describes the creation of man. Not only are gods described with typically human feelings and failings but also heroes are created, often with one divine parent and the other mortal, thus providing a link between man and the gods.

The next principal representation of myths was through pottery from the 8th century BC onwards. A myriad of mythical scenes decorate ceramics of all shapes and function and must surely have spread the myths to a wider audience.

Greek mythology continued to be popular through the centuries, and major public buildings such as the Parthenon at Athens, the Temple of Zeus at Olympia, and the Temple to Apollo at Delphi were decorated with larger-than-life sculpture representing celebrated scenes from mythology. In the 5th century BC the myths were presented in the new format of theatre, especially in the works of the three tragedians Aeschylus, Sophocles, and Euripides. At the same time, from the 6th century BC the first documented scepticism and even rejection of the myths began with the pre-Socratic philosophers who searched for a more scientific explanation for phenomena and events. Finally, in the 5th century BC the first historians Herodotus and Thucydides sought to document as accurately as possible and record for posterity a less subjective view of events and so the modern subject of history was born.

Greek Gods

Greek gods were immortal beings who possessed human-like qualities and were represented as completely human in visual art. They were moral and immoral, petty and just, and often vain. The gods were invoked to intervene and assist in matters large, small, private and public. City-states claimed individual gods and goddesses as their patrons. Temples and sanctuaries to the gods were built in every city. Many cities became cult sites due to their connection with a god or goddess and specific myths. For instance, the city of Delphi was known for its oracle and sanctuary of Apollo, because Apollo was believed to have killed a dragon that inhabited Delphi. The history of the Greek pantheon begins with the primordial deities Gaia (Mother Earth) and Uranus (Father Sky), who were the parents of the first of twelve giants known as Titans. Among these Titans were six males and six females. The males were named Oceanus, Hyperion, Coeus, Crius, Iapetus, and Kronos. The females were named Themis, Mnemosyne, Tethys, Theia, Phoebe, and Rhea. Kronos eventually overthrew Uranus and ruled during a mythological Golden Age. Over time, he and Rhea had twelve children who would become the Olympian gods. However, Kronos heard a prophecy that his son would overthrow him, as he did to Uranus. In an effort to avert fate, he ordered Rhea to allow him to devour each of the children upon their birth.

The Olympian Gods

Best known among the pantheon are the twelve Olympian gods and goddesses who resided on Mt. Olympus in northern Greece. Zeus, the youngest son of Rhea and Kronos, was hidden from his father, instead of being swallowed. Once he became a man, he challenged his father’s rule, forcing Kronos to regurgitate the rest of his swallowed children. These children were Zeus’s siblings, and together they overthrew Kronos, making Zeus the father of gods and men.

Violence and power struggles were common in Greek mythology, and the Greeks used their mythologies to explain their lives around them, from the change in seasons to why the Persians were able to sack Athens.

The traditional pantheon of Greek gods include:

• Zeus, the king of gods and the ruler of the sky.
• Zeus’ two brothers, Poseidon (who ruled over the sea) and Hades (who ruled the underworld).
• Zeus’s sister and wife, Hera, the goddess of marriage, is frequently jealous and vindictive of Zeus’s other lovers.
• Hestia, the goddess of the hearth, and Demeter, the goddess of grain and culture.
• Athena (goddess of warfare and wisdom).
• Hermes (a messenger god and god of commerce).
• the twins, Apollo (god of the sun, music, and prophecy) and Artemis (goddess of the hunt and of wild animals).
• Dionysos (god of wine and theatre).
• Aphrodite (goddess of beauty and love), who was married to Hephaestus (deformed god of the forge).
• Ares (god of war and lover of Aphrodite) are also part of the traditional pantheon.
• Hephaestus was in some mythologies the son of Zeus while in others the fatherless son of Hera.

Heroes

Heroes, who were often demigods, were also important characters in Greek mythology. The two most important heroes are Perseus and Hercules.

Perseus is known for defeating the Gorgon, Medusa. He slew her with help from the gods: Athena gave him armour and a reflective shield, and Hermes provided Perseus with winged sandals so he could fly.

Hercules was a strong but unkind man, a drunkard who conducted huge misdeeds and social faux pas. Hercules was sent on twelve labours to atone for his sins as punishment for his misdeeds. These deeds, and several other stories, were often depicted in art, on ceramic pots, or on temple metopes. The most famous of his deeds include slaying both the Nemean Lion and the Hydra, capturing Cerberus (the dog of the underworld), and obtaining the apples of the Hesperides.

A third hero, Theseus, was an Athenian hero known for slaying King Minos’s Minotaur. Other major heroes in Greek mythology include the warriors and participants of the Trojan War, such as Achilles, Ajax, Odysseus, Agamemnon, Paris, Hector, and Helen.

Hero cults were another popular form of Greek worship that involved the honouring of the dead, specifically the dead heroes of the Trojan War. The sites of hero-worship were usually old Bronze Age sites or tombs that the ancient Greeks recognized as important or sacred, which they then connected to their own legends and stories.

Sacred Spaces

Greek worship was centred on the temple. The temple was considered the home of the god, and a cult statue of the god would be erected in the central room or the naos. Temples generally followed the same basic rectangular plan, although a round temple, known as a tholos, was used at some sites starting in the Classical period.

Temples were oriented east to face the rising sun. Patrons would leave offerings for the gods, such as small votives, large statues, libations or costly goods. Due to the wealth dedicated to the gods, the temples often became treasuries that held and preserved the wealth of the city. Greek temples would be extensively decorated, and their construction was a long and costly endeavour.

Rituals and animal sacrifices in honour of the god or goddess would take place outside, in front of the temple. Rituals often included a large number of people, and sacrifice was a messy business that was best done outdoors. The development and decoration of temples is a primary focus in the study of Greek art and culture.