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Basilica

A Basilica, in the Roman Catholic and Greek Orthodox churches, is a canonical title of honor given to church buildings that are distinguished either by their antiquity or by their role as international centres of worship because of their association with a major saint, an important historical event, or, in the Orthodox Church, a national patriarch. The title gives the church certain privileges, principally the right to reserve its high altar for the pope, a cardinal, or a patriarch, and special penitential privileges that remove the basilica from local geographical jurisdiction and give it international status.

In architecture, “basilica” in its earliest usage designated any number of large roofed public buildings in ancient Rome and pre-Christian Italy, markets, courthouses, covered promenades, and meeting halls. Gradually, however, the word became limited to buildings of a more or less definite form: rectangular walled structures with an open hall extending from end to end, usually flanked by side aisles set off by colonnades (in large buildings often running entirely around the central area), and with a raised platform at one or both ends. During the 1st century bc, when basilicas were increasingly used for judicial purposes, the raised platform became enclosed by an apse, or semicircular half-domed protrusion of the end wall, to accommodate the magistrate. The foundations of a number of very large basilicas have been excavated at several sites in Italy. The most impressive remains, however, are those of a basilica begun by Emperor Maxentius in the early 4th century ad in Rome and finished by his successor, Constantine the Great.

One type of smaller secular basilica had side aisles extending the length of the sides only and an apse at one end. It was this type that the early Christians adopted for their churches, possibly because similar halls in large private houses had been used for Christian worship before the religion was officially recognized by the Roman emperor Constantine in 313. Constantine himself commissioned the construction of three enormous Christian basilicas in Rome: St. Peter’s, S. Paolo Fuori le Mura, and S. Giovanni in Laterano. He added a new feature, the transept, a lateral aisle crossing the nave just before the apse, and thus created the cross-shaped plan that became standard for churches in western Europe throughout the Middle Ages.

In the typical Early Christian basilica, the columns separating the nave from the side aisles carried either arches or an entablature (straight band of molding), and above these was a blank wall supporting the timber roof of the nave. Because the nave rose considerably higher than the side aisles, the wall that supported the nave roof stood above the level of the side aisle roofs and could thus be pierced at the top with windows to light the centre of the church. This high nave wall is called the clerestory. The side aisles themselves were either single or double. The apse opened from the nave by a great arch known as the triumphal arch. In some cases, if there was a transept, another triumphal arch separated the transept from the nave. At the entrance end a narthex, or vestibule, extended the entire width of the nave and aisles. This narthex was commonly fronted by a colonnade and, in many cases, opened onto a court surrounded by either colonnades or arcades. After the 10th century a round or square campanile, or bell tower, was added.

The exterior of such a building was simple and was rarely decorated. The simplicity of the interior, however, provided surfaces suitable for elaborate ornamentation.

Although the basilica is primarily characteristic of Rome, there are many examples elsewhere. The 5th-century church of St. Demetrius at Thessalonica, Greece, and the 6th-century churches of S. Apollinare Nuovo and S. Apollinare in Classe, both at Ravenna, are particularly noteworthy examples. The basilica plan, with its nave, aisles, and apse, remained the basis for church building in the Western Church. It gradually passed out of use in the Eastern Church, however, eclipsed by the radial plan on which the emperor Justinian I constructed the domed cathedral of Hagia Sophia at Constantinople.

Circus Maximus

The Colosseum may be the most famous arena left over from Ancient Rome, but it wasn’t the largest. The Circus Maximus could hold 5 times as many spectators; though exact numbers aren’t known, estimates range from 150,000 to 350,000 spectators, far exceeding the 50,000 seats at the Colosseum.

Chariot racing was one of, or arguably the most popular sport in ancient Rome – and was also one of the oldest, as it originated in Ancient Greece. A race typically consisted of seven laps, with four to six competitors. Chariot racing was incredibly dangerous for both the drivers and horses and often led to deaths or serious injuries.

The wide-open field of the arena is often used as an outdoor venue for performances. Concerts and plays are often performed here, in keeping with the Circus Maximus’ longstanding history as a centre for entertainment.

Though the partially remaining structure can be dated back to a similar time to the Colosseum, the Circus Maximus is far older. The origins of the arena date back to six centuries before the Colosseum was built.

Unlike most ancient sites in Rome, the Circus Maximus is free to enter and explore as it is a public park. Though we rightfully associate the Circus Maximus with its primary purpose of sport and entertainment, it also had religious connections. Shrines and temples overlooked the circuit, and the sun and moon gods, Apollo and Diana, but particularly the former, were considered patrons of the games.

Timeline

6th century BC. The track of Circus Maximus was carved out for chariot races early on in Rome’s history.

329 BC. Wooden stalls for seating are built, and permanent starting gates are constructed.

50 BC. Due to popular demand, the stadium is expanded to hold more spectators and a larger track.

31 BC. A fire causes significant damage to the arena. Augustus conducted repairs, with the addition of the Ancient Egyptian ‘Flaminian’ obelisk from Heliopolis, which would much later be erected in the Piazza del Popolo, where it stands today.

64 AD. A devastating fire begins in the stalls and shops within the stadium, causing untold damage and quickly spreading throughout the city. The Circus Maximus was rebuilt with a larger capacity the following year.

549 AD. The last official chariot race at the Circus Maximus occurs.

1588. Two Egyptian obelisks are unearthed at the site, one is moved to the Piazza del Popolo, another to the Basilica of St John Lateran.

21st century. Concerts are performed in the arena – the likes of the Rollings Stones and Genesis are two of the more notable examples.

Mos Maiorum

The mos maiorum (literally meaning “the way of the ancestors” in Latin) was the unwritten code of traditional values, customs, and social practices that formed the ethical foundation of ancient Roman society. It was central to Roman identity and shaped their political, religious, familial, and military institutions. The mos maiorum embodied a set of moral principles and behavioral guidelines passed down through generations, guiding Romans in their daily lives and shaping their interactions within society.

Origins and Meaning of Mos Maiorum

The term mos maiorum is derived from mos (meaning “custom” or “manner”) and maiorum (meaning “of the ancestors”), implying that it was a set of inherited customs. Unlike codified laws, which were formally written and legislated, the mos maiorum was rooted in tradition, passed down orally and upheld by collective societal consensus. The Roman people, particularly the ruling elite, believed that these ancestral customs had a divine origin and were key to the stability and prosperity of Rome.

The mos maiorum was conservative by nature, emphasizing the preservation of the traditional values and practices established by previous generations. In Roman society, continuity with the past was highly esteemed, and maintaining this connection to ancestral customs was seen as essential for the welfare of the state. Adherence to the mos maiorum gave Romans a strong sense of identity and belonging, reinforcing social cohesion.

The Role of Mos Maiorum in Roman Society

The mos maiorum served as the foundation for Rome’s social hierarchy and moral code, influencing both public and private life. It was a guide for behavior, helping individuals navigate their roles within the family, the state, and religious institutions. While the mos maiorum provided an ethical framework, it was also flexible enough to allow for adaptation and interpretation as circumstances changed over time.

The values upheld by the mos maiorum emphasized duty, respect for authority, discipline, and a strong sense of civic responsibility. Romans were expected to put the interests of the community and the state above their own personal desires. Upholding these values was seen as a moral obligation, and those who adhered to them were respected and honored.

Orpheus

Orpheus and His Musical Legacy

Orpheus is a figure from ancient Greek mythology, most famous for his virtuoso ability in playing the lyre or kithara. His music could charm the wild animals of the forest, and even streams would pause and trees bend a little closer to hear his sublime singing. He was also a renowned poet, traveled with Jason and the Argonauts in search of the Golden Fleece, and even descended into the Underworld of Hades to recover his lost wife Eurydice. Orpheus was seen as the head of a poetic tradition known as Orphism where, according to some scholars, adherents performed certain rituals and composed or read poems, texts, and hymns, which included an alternative view of humanity's origins. Orpheus is widely referenced in all forms of ancient Greek art from pottery to sculpture.

Family Background

Orpheus had an excellent musical pedigree as his mother was the Muse Calliope, and he learned his great skills from his father, the god Apollo, the finest musician of them all. Orpheus' mortal father was generally considered to be King Oeagrus (or Oiagros) of Thrace, where the Greeks believed the lyre also came from. Orpheus' brother was the unfortunate Linos (Linus) of Argos, the inventor of rhythm and melody, and the kithara teacher of Hercules, who was killed by his famous pupil after he over-chastised the hero. Orpheus also passed on his musical skills, notably tutoring King Midas, the mythical king of Phrygia whose touch changed everything into gold. In some myths, Orpheus had a son, Leos, who was regarded as the founder of the Athenian Leontids.

Eurydice in Hades

Orpheus married Eurydice (aka Agriope); however, their happiness was short-lived, for Eurydice was bitten on her ankle by a poisonous snake when attempting to escape an attacker, the demigod Aristaeus. Eurydice died, in some accounts, on her wedding night. Distraught, Orpheus followed his love down to Hades, the Greek Underworld, and with his music charmed Charon, the ferryman, and Cerberus, the fearsome dog which guarded the gates, to allow him into the realm of shades.

Meeting Persephone, the wife of the god Hades, he beseeched the goddess with his song to release Eurydice and allow her to return to the land of the living. Hades, who ruled the Underworld, then appeared and, moved by Orpheus' offer that if Eurydice could not be released, he would stay himself in the Underworld, the god consented to her release. There was, however, a condition. The shadow of Eurydice would follow behind Orpheus as he left Hades, but if he once looked back at her, she would forever remain in the world of the dead.

Delighted, Orpheus agreed to this simple request but as he walked through the shadows of Hades and heard not a single footfall from behind, he began to doubt Eurydice was still there following. Then, almost at the threshold of the world of light and happiness, the doubtful Orpheus looked back. There she was, the shadow of Eurydice, but as soon as their eyes met, the girl vanished. In despair, Orpheus stumbled to the daylight and collapsed, his grief not allowing him to eat or drink. Finally, he gathered his senses and roamed the forests of Thrace, but he shunned human company and never sang or played his lyre again.

Romance Languages

Romance languages, group of related languages all derived from Vulgar Latin within historical times and forming a subgroup of the Italic branch of the Indo-European language family. The major languages of the family include French, Italian, Spanish, Portuguese, and Romanian, all national languages. Catalan also has taken on a political and cultural significance; among the Romance languages that now have less political or literary significance or both are the Occitan and Rhaetian dialects, Sardinian, and Dalmatian (extinct), among others.

Of all the so-called families of languages, the Romance group is perhaps the simplest to identify and the easiest to account for historically. Not only do Romance languages share a good proportion of basic vocabulary—still recognizably the same in spite of some phonological changes—and a number of similar grammatical forms, but they can be traced back, with but few breaks in continuity, to the language of the Roman Empire.

So close is the similarity of each of the Romance languages to Latin as currently known from a rich literature and continuous religious and scholarly tradition that no one doubts the relationship. For the nonspecialist, the testimony of history is even more convincing than the linguistic evidence: Roman occupation of Italy, the Iberian Peninsula, Gaul, and the Balkans accounts for the “Roman” character of the major Romance languages. Later European colonial and commercial contacts with parts of the Americas, of Africa, and of Asia readily explain the French, Spanish, and Portuguese spoken in those regions.

Thermae

Thermae are grandiose Roman baths, and all thermae are Roman baths, but not all Roman baths are thermae. The thermae were the luxurious, grand versions with multiple facilities for various activities, while Roman baths could be as simple as local public bathhouses.

The thermae was a complex of rooms designed for public bathing, relaxation, and social activity that was developed to a high degree of sophistication by the ancient Romans. Although public baths are known to have existed in early Egyptian palaces, remains are too fragmentary to permit complete analysis of Egyptian types. Bathing occupied an important place in the life of the Greeks, as indicated by the remains of bathing rooms in the palace of Knossos (begun c. 1700 BC). The standardized architectural type of the thermae, however, was not developed until the Romans designed the great imperial thermae—Baths of Titus (AD 81), Baths of Domitian (95), Trajan’s Baths (c. 100), Baths of Caracalla (217), and the Thermae of Diocletian (c. 302).

The general scheme consisted of a large open garden surrounded by subsidiary club rooms and a block of bath chambers either in the centre of the garden, as in the Baths of Caracalla, or at its rear, as in the Baths of Titus. The main block contained three large bath chambers—the frigidarium, calidarium (caldarium), and tepidarium—smaller bathrooms, and courts. Service was furnished by means of underground passageways, through which slaves could move swiftly without being seen. For lighting and for the roofing of the enormous rooms, the Romans developed an ingenious system of clerestory windows (windows in or near the roof or vault).

Modern discoveries of ancient sculpture in the Roman baths, such as the Laocoon group from the Baths of Caracalla in Rome, indicate the richness of the furnishings. Floors were marble or mosaic; walls were apparently sheathed with marble to a considerable height and decorated above with stucco reliefs and mosaic. Gilt bronze was used freely for doors, capitals (the crowning member of a classical column), and window screens. This type of imperial bathing establishment was repeated in its essential form, but on a smaller scale, throughout the Roman Empire.

Although there is disagreement among scholars about the exact order of bathing activities, the Roman technique of bathing is thought to have followed a somewhat standardized pattern. The bather probably first entered the apodyterium, where he undressed. He was then anointed with oil in the elaeothesium, or unctuarium, before entering a room or court, where he indulged in rigourous exercise. After this activity, he proceeded to the calidarium (hot room) and to the sudatorium, or laconicum (steam room), where his body was probably scraped of its accumulation of oil and perspiration with a curved metal implement called a strigil. The bather then moved to the tepidarium (warm room) and afterward to the frigidarium (cold room), where there was frequently a swimming pool. The bathing process was completed after the body was once more anointed with oil.

Roman baths varied in size from those in the larger, private houses to the great public thermae. The essential features present in all types of thermae were an ADequate system of furnishing hot, tepid, and cold water; the heating of the hot portions of the bath, and sometimes also the tepidarium, by the circulation of smoke and heated air from a fire under the floor through the hollow walls (see also hypocaust); and ADequate basins for warm and cold water in the hot bath.

As a rule, men and women bathed separately. Mixed bathing is first recorded in the 1st century AD, by the Roman scholar Pliny the Elder. The practice, which seems to have been largely restricted to courtesans, was condemned by respectable citizens and prohibited by the emperors Hadrian and Marcus Aurelius.

Silk Road

The Silk Road was a network of ancient trade routes, formally established during the Han Dynasty of China in 130 BC, which linked the regions of the ancient world in commerce between 130 BC-1453 AD. The Silk Road was not a single route from east to west and so historians favor the name 'Silk Routes', though 'Silk Road' is commonly used.

The European explorer Marco Polo (l.1254-1324 AD) traveled on these routes and described them in depth in his famous work but he is not credited with naming them. Both terms for this network of roads - Silk Road and Silk Routes - were coined by the German geographer and traveler, Ferdinand von Richthofen, in 1877 AD, who designated them 'Seidenstrasse' (silk road) or 'Seidenstrassen' (silk routes). Polo, and later von Richthofen, make mention of the goods which were transported back and forth on the Silk Road.

The network was used regularly from 130 BC, when the Han Dynasty (202 BC - 220 AD) officially opened trade with the west, to 1453 AD, when the Ottoman Empire boycotted trade with the west and closed the routes. By this time, Europeans had become used to the goods from the east and, when the Silk Road closed, merchants needed to find new trade routes to meet the demand for these goods.

The closure of the Silk Road initiated the Age of Discovery (also known as the Age of Exploration, 1453-1660 AD) which would be defined by European explorers taking to the sea and charting new water routes to replace over-land trade. The Age of Discovery would impact cultures around the world as European ships claimed some lands in the name of their god and country and influenced others by introducing western culture and religion and, at the same time, these other nations influenced European cultural traditions. The Silk Road - from its opening to its closure - had so great an impact on the development of world civilization that it is difficult to imagine the modern world without it.

Verism

From the Latin word meaning “true,” verism is the name of a style of portraiture that is hyperrealistic and emphasizes individual features.

The Romans created veristic portraits of older men most likely because the style conveyed experience as well as indicating that the individual has met an age requirement to run for political office.

Vigiles

The Vigiles (or cohortes vigilum) were formed during the reign of Augustus to act as ancient Rome's permanent firefighting service. Evolving from earlier slave teams, the vigiles were organised as an urban military unit and eventually recruits came from the Roman citizenry. The body, with a permanent camp of its own and equipment stations dotted around the city, patrolled the streets of Rome each night and also performed certain nocturnal policing duties to ensure public order.

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Fresco Painting

Fresco painting is a method of painting water-based pigments on freshly applied plaster, usually on wall surfaces. The colors, which are made by grinding dry-powder pigments in pure water, dry and set with the plaster to become a permanent part of the wall. Fresco painting is ideal for making murals because it lends itself to a monumental style, is durable, and has a matte surface.

Great Sphinx

The Great Sphinx of Giza is a giant 4,500-year-old limestone statue situated near the Great Pyramid in Giza, Egypt. Measuring 73 meters long and 20 meters high, the Great Sphinx is one of the world’s largest monuments. It is also one of the most recognizable relics of the ancient Egyptians, though the origins and history of the colossal structure are still debated.

A sphinx (or sphynx) is a creature with the body of a lion and the head of a human, with some variations. It is a prominent mythological figure in Egyptian, Asian, and Greek mythology.

In ancient Egypt, the sphinx was a spiritual guardian and most often depicted as a male with a pharaoh headdress—as is the Great Sphinx—and figures of the creatures were often included in tomb and temple complexes. For instance, the so-called Sphinx Alley in Upper Egypt is a two-mile avenue that connects the temples of Luxor and Karnak and is lined with sphinx statues.

Sphinxes with the likeness of the female pharaoh Hatshepsut also exist, such as the granite sphinx statue at the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York and the large alabaster sphinx at the Ramessid temple in Memphis, Egypt.

Hypostyle Hall

Hypostyle hall, in architecture, is an interior space whose roof rests on pillars or columns. The word means literally “under pillars,” and the design allows for the construction of large spaces—as in temples, palaces, or public buildings—without the need for arches. It was used extensively in ancient Egypt—where the Temple of Amon at Karnak provides a good example—and in Persia—where the ruins at Persepolis give evidence of outstanding examples of hypostyle construction.

Imhotep

Imhotep (born 27th or 26th century BC) was a vizier, sage, architect, astrologer, and chief minister to Djoser (reigned c. 2592–c. 2566 BC), the first king of Egypt’s Third Dynasty. He was later worshipped as the god of medicine in Egypt and in Greece, where he was identified with the Greek god of medicine, Asclepius. He is considered to be the architect of the step pyramid built at the necropolis of Ṣaqqārah in Memphis. It is the oldest extant monument of hewn stone known to the world.

Imhotep’s high standing in Djoser’s court is affirmed by an inscription bearing his name on a statue of Djoser found at the site of the Ṣaqqārah pyramid. The inscription lists a variety of titles, including chief of the sculptors and chief of the seers. Although no contemporary account has been found that refers to Imhotep as a practicing physician, documents on Egyptian society and medicine during the Old Kingdom (c. 2543–c. 2120 BC) show that the chief magician of the pharaoh’s court also frequently served as the nation’s chief physician. Imhotep’s reputation as the reigning genius of the time, his position in the court, his training as a scribe, and his becoming known as a medical demigod only 100 years after his death are strong indications that he must have been a physician of considerable skill.

Labdanum

Labdanum’s earliest recorded uses as a fragrance ingredient date back three thousand years ago to the civilization of Ancient Egypt, when it was used to make kyphi incense. Kyphi incense was an aromatic material used for ceremonial purposes, which gave off fragrant smoke when burned.

The Book of Genesis, the first book of the Hebrew Bible and the Christian Old Testament, talks about labdanum being carried to Egypt from Canaan, a region on the territories of modern-day Israel, the West Bank and Gaza, Jordan, and the southern portions of Syria and Lebanon.

Ma'at

Ma'at (pronounced may-et) is the ancient Egyptian goddess of truth, justice, harmony, and balance (a concept known as ma'at in Egyptian) who first appears during the period known as the Old Kingdom (c. 2613 - 2181 BC) but no doubt existed in some form earlier. She is depicted in anthropomorphic form as a winged woman, often in profile with an ostrich feather on her head, or simply as a white ostrich feather. The feather of Ma'at was an integral part of the Weighing of the Heart of the Soul ceremony in the afterlife where the heart of the soul of the dead person was weighed in the scales of justice against the feather.

Necropolis

Necropolis (from Greek nekropolis, “city of the dead”) is an extensive and elaborate burial place of an ancient city. In the Mediterranean world, the necropolis was customarily outside the city proper and often consisted of a number of cemeteries used at different times over a period of several centuries. The locations of those cemeteries were varied. In Egypt many were situated across the Nile River opposite the cities, as was western Thebes, but in Greece and Rome a necropolis often lined the roads leading out of town. One of the most famous necropolises was discovered in the 1940s under the central nave of St. Peter’s Basilica in Rome.

Orientalizing Period

The Orientalizing Period in Greece refers to a roughly 100-year period in which Greek art was greatly influenced by eastern, and specifically Near Eastern and Egyptian, ideas, myths, and decorative styles.

The Orientalizing Period lasted from about the mid-8th until the mid-7th centuries B.C.

Papyrus

Papyrus, a writing material of ancient times and also the plant from which it was derived, Cyperus papyrus (family Cyperaceae), also called paper plant. The papyrus plant was long cultivated in the Nile delta region in Egypt and was collected for its stalk or stem, whose central pith was cut into thin strips, pressed together, and dried to form a smooth thin writing surface.

The English word 'paper' comes from the word 'papyrus.'

Rosetta Stone

The Rosetta Stone is an incomplete grey and pink granodiorite stela dating from 196 BC which presents a priestly decree concerning King Ptolemy V of Egypt. The text is in three different versions: Hieroglyphic, Demotic and Greek, a fact which immeasurably helped to finally decipher Egyptian hieroglyphics.

Shabti Dolls

The shabti dolls of Ancient Egypt are a fascinating aspect of their funerary practices, reflecting the Egyptians' beliefs about the afterlife and the continuation of one's duties beyond death. These small figurines, often inscribed with a spell known as the shabti formula, were intended to act as servants for the deceased in the afterlife, performing any labor that was asked of them. This practice was rooted in the Egyptian concept of the afterlife as a reflection of earthly life, where the soul, having successfully navigated the trials of the underworld, would reside in the idyllic Field of Reeds. Here, amidst the familiar comforts of home and community, the shabti dolls ensured that the deceased could enjoy eternal rest without the burdens of daily toil. The integration of such practices highlights the ancient Egyptians' deep connection to their community and their meticulous attention to the spiritual journey that awaited them after death.

Stela

A stela is an upright monument containing information in the form of texts, images or a combination of the two. Stelae have been used to commemorate people or events, to delineate physical spaces or as objects through which to access the dead or divine. Such monuments were made by a variety of cultures in the ancient world.

Egyptian stelae originated during the first dynasty as burial markers in the necropolis at Abydos, in the form of round-topped stone pillars inscribed with the king’s name and stone slabs with the names and titles of his officials.

Temples in Ancient Egypt

In the religious customs of ancient Egypt the temple was considered 'the horizon' of a divine being, the point at which the god came into existence at creation, and thus every sacred site had a link to the very distant past and honored the specific god whose temple it was. The temple also was a mirror of the universe and a representation of the ben-ben, the sacred mound which rose out of chaos by the will of Amon at the beginning of time. At the same time, the temple was a site set aside for communion with the gods, as at the famous temple of Karnak.

Tombs in Ancient Egypt

The most elaborate tombs in ancient times were those built by the Egyptians for their kings, the pharaohs. In the Early Dynastic Period (c. 3150-c. 2613 BC), the Egyptians built mastabas, tombs made of dried clay bricks which were then used to shore up shafts and chambers dug into the earth. In every mastaba there was a large room for ceremonies honoring the spirit of the deceased and an adjoining smaller room, the serdab, where a statue of the dead person would be placed so that the spirit could witness and enjoy the ceremonies. The mastaba - the oldest form of the tomb in Egypt - continued in use for the common people but for royalty it was replaced by the structure known as the pyramid during the Old Kingdom (c. 2613-2181 BC).

Commencing with the Step Pyramid at Saqqara, the royal pyramids would reach their height in splendor in the construction of the Great Pyramid of Giza (built for King Khufu, r. 2589-2566 BC). The royal pyramids were adorned with paintings depicting the life and accomplishments of the deceased king and filled with all those necessities the spirit would need in the afterlife in the Field of Reeds, the Egyptian paradise. Monarchs were also interred in the area known as The Valley of the Kings and their tombs were elaborate eternal homes, highly ornamented, which reflected their status as divine rulers.

Unification of Upper and Lower Egypt by King Narmer

The Two Lands (Upper and Lower Egypt) became united around 3000 BC under a single king, Narmer (or Menes), who ruled as the first king of Upper and Lower Egypt. Already in this early period, many of the distinct characteristics of Egyptian culture, including kingship ideology, writing system, social structure, religious beliefs, and modes of artistic representation were introduced and codified.

Yardang

Yardang is a large area of soft, poorly consolidated rock and bedrock surfaces that have been extensively grooved, fluted, and pitted by wind erosion. The rock is eroded into alternating ridges and furrows essentially parallel to the dominant wind direction. The relief may range from one to several metres, and there may be unconnected hollows and other irregular shapes. Yardangs occur in various deserts of the world.

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